现代西洋美术史潮
The tide of modern Western art history.

宇宙是个大生命，一切的生物与万象都是这大生命的表现。由于人类不断的活动才能使这个大生命不断的更新，美术当然更不在例外。因为美术是人类精神与时代文化的共同产物，这产物因受着本身内部矛盾元素的冲突、时代精神的变动、人类思想的改变，所以便时时在变化，刻刻在演进了。无论是任何时代的美术，都潜伏着时代的精神而各具有其特色。

回溯历史，我们可以知道古代希腊的美术家是力求典雅优美之趣的。他们嫌弃肤浅的写实，热心于理想的再现，简单地说，完全是属于理想主义的。古罗马的美术家则追求忠实地再现自然，模仿自然，是绝对的写实主义美术。虽然，从整个西洋美术史来看，古希腊罗马的美术是合称为“古典美术”的。但是若将古希腊与罗马的美术分开来作个比较的话，我们又不难发现古希腊美术是优雅的，罗马美术却流于俚俗了。及至中世纪的基督教美术，则因重精神，轻肉体，所以倾向于虔诚的宗教感情的表达，自有一种清高的精神。到文艺复兴时代，人类才肯定了自己的生存权利，认识了自己的创作力量，美术家才开始在其作品上，表现了内心活动的力。到了十七世纪的巴洛克与十八世纪的罗可可时代，美术又从现实的人生游离，是华而不实的纤丽作风。到十九世纪，因法国大革命的影响，庞贝古城的发掘，以及人们对罗可可式的美术发生了厌恶感，同时又经著名考古学者兼批评家温克尔曼（Winckelmann 1717-1768）的热烈鼓吹，所以一切的美术又呈古典复兴的倾向了。于是，近代的西洋美术史，便由古典主义写上最初的一页。接着浪漫主义打破了古典主义的因袭与划一的精神，用热烈的色彩表现生命的活力。浪漫主义衰弱了，继起的是只赞美现实，决不夸张或空想的写实主义。这种写实主义的精神，有使绘画归复到绘画的独立性之观。同时因科学的发达，影响到美术的倾向，于是现实主义的美术家又根据现代科学的立论和常识，否定了色彩上的固有色与固有调子，进一步地从外光的研究作新的启示。在印象派的大师马奈Manet的锐敏观察之下，就使写实主义的绘画更进于彻底了。

西洋美术的本道是以复兴时期的希腊精神为中心，由罗马传至意大利，直到文艺复兴期，都是从古典美术的精神孕育着的。及至文艺复兴后的十七、十八世纪，还是到处流行着古典主义思潮的时代。大体上形成这时期美术思潮的基调者是意大利。到十九世纪以后，西洋美术的中心，就有从意大利转移到法国之感了。尤其是到了二十世纪的现代，美术上思潮的变迁，大多归诸于法国的影响，是毫无异议的了！

综观过去美术思潮的演变，每一种更易传统的变迁，往往需要成百年甚或数世纪之久。也就是说过去美术的历史上，受到人类生活情绪的影响而变动的过程，是非常缓慢的。但是，二十世纪的现代美术，一开始便掀起了一个莫之能御的狂澜。那些揭橥彻底的美术家，也以极端性冒险的状态出现，似乎要表示他们对旧传统美术血缘的割断。他们不满与反抗束缚在科学桎梏之下的自然主义、写实主义与印象主义的美术的客观描实，扬弃了一切因袭传统的美术形式，献身于一种主观表现的狂热中，致力在感觉世界的探索里。因此各种变化多端、新奇式样的美术主义，便像雨后春笋一般地在本世纪的初期纷然出现了！这种怪诞奇异，变化无穷的现代美术，使得人们的情绪与精神，都陷入了无所适从的惘然与迷惑之困境，因而引起几十年前人们的激烈的反对。但是，还不到半个世纪，这现代抽象主义的美术已压服了反抗，以胜利者的步伍，踏入美术领域的新阶段，成为了现代美术的主导潮流。这一个极端化的转变是有着深刻的意义的，它的成功，不论是从技巧、形式到美学的观念，都大大的影响了美术家的创作方向，并扩大了现代人狭隘的观念和视野。到目前，不管你喜欢不喜欢，在好些方面，毕加索和马蒂斯已经在人们的心目中，代替了鲁本斯（Rubens 1577-1640）或林勃兰（Rembrandt 1606-1669）;康定斯基，蒙特里安都已经受到比列宾（Repin 1844-1930）或梵依克（Van Eyck 1380-1441），更热烈的欢迎了。在本世纪初期，那些对付现代美术的鄙夷和讥讽态度。确实已随着时日渐次消失，现在大家都认真而严肃地看待它，更进一步关心地研究，讨论它将来的发展了！

我刚才说过，美术的演变是因为时代思潮与人类精神的影响而导致的。现代这些错综繁杂的抽象美术形式，正是我们这个世纪的生活急剧变动的象征。现代生活的紧张与繁复，早已随了近代的产业革命而来。科学的进步、机械的发明、经济的问题、物质的势力都激烈地压迫着人类的精神。因此现代的美术家都惶惑于这眩目的变动，他们遭受了物质生活所给予的重大影响，想在这震撼的时代激流中，寻求他们各自精神的出路，因此当抽象主义的现代美术一出现，便是毫无忌惮地以极大的冲力击溃了十九世纪末期的庸俗猥琐的物质主义的压力，把以前绘画的观念一扫而尽，由个性的精神，自我的极端表现，在美术上换取了另一条表现的路。所以现代的美术，就在这种新的意识之下，展开了它的机运。

我们要了解现代的美术，首先必须对美术思潮的变迁有一个明晰的概念，进而理解各派美术的基本观念与理论根据。因为现代的美术，固然是倾覆了一切的旧传统法则，改变了画面上的空间与时间的观念，以多元的视点或主观的意识，夸张的形式，象征的色彩，而展开了自由不羁的表现，令人苦于理解而感到迷乱。其实，这些五光十色的各派绘画，并没有脱离历代美术的连锁，它还是蹈袭着古人的旧迹而演变的。所以，只要我们把目前兴衰生灭的各画派演化的进程，略加一番巡礼之后，就不难发现它们都是圈套在历代美术连锁中的新的一环，它们并不曾与美术的根基完全脱节！因为历史不是重复的，所以现代的美术就在演进中加上了新的意义与价值，然后在美术史上粉墨登场了！

我们要明确地理解各派美术的意义，首先必须追溯画派产生的根源。这样，你就不难从万花撩乱的千种万类的风格中，清楚地把握到它们的本质。自从印象派以后的绘画，完全就向纯绘画的本质迈进了。到了后期印象派，绘画才开始脱离视觉上的描写，转入了纯主观的内心表现，或客观的理性表现了。因此，关于现代美术思潮的变迁，我们应该先由以光线为表现中心的印象派开始。

印象主义

自一千八百七十年普法战争发生之后，美术也跟随着时代的精神，或其他艺术的演变，由柯尔培Courbet的写实主义转化成另一种新画派，这就是广义的印象主义（Impressionism）了。给予此派画家以刺激与启示的，是英国风景画家邓纳Turner与康斯泰堡Constable的避开个物精细描实，而从大体着手，从规则中去求自由活泼的表现手法、与西班牙画家韦拉斯圭Velasquez的运用色彩的浓淡度来表现远近的技巧、以及浪漫派画家狄拉窪斯Delacroix的色彩对比法。尤其是当马奈Manet与莫奈Monet旅居荷兰时，看见荷兰人所收藏的东方绘画，觉得这些东方画家的描实多是简洁而且含蓄的，题材又多是从自然界中的景物，而且在画面上所表现的，都是画家对事物的第一印象。他们由此获得了极大的感应和启示，于是便主张走出画室，到户外去细心观察大自然中光与色的相互关系，坚决地舍去室内的褐色，如实地描画日光照耀下的景物了。其时适因物理学的发达，一切有关光学与色彩学理论络续问世，画家也受到科学潮流的波及，因而开始应用光学与色彩学的理论来作画。在这方面莫奈比马奈更有造就，他已摸索到任何表现光的特殊手法了。他以冷静的头脑来观察自然、分析自然，以光线的振动为描画自然万象的中心、认为光与色是绘画的生命。他正确地描画了在不同时间，不同光线之下的色彩、气氛与光影的微妙变化。在他晚年所作的连续制作《睡莲》与《威尼斯》的画面上，尤其富有光辉的颤动感与色调的和谐美，更能表现出大自然的迷人魅力；实为印象主义画法的正宗。所以印象主义色彩革命的伟业，实在可说是由马奈开创，及至莫奈才得以大成功。

印象主义出色的画家很多，诸如：善于表现幽静素朴的田园之美的毕沙罗（Pissarro 1830-1903），善于描画柔软纤细富有弹力与魅惑力的女性肉体美的雷诺（Renior 1841-1920）、擅长于表现瞬间动作姿态的狄卡（Degas 1834-1917）、喜欢描画小市民生活的罗特利克（Toulous Lautrec 1864-1901）、以及终日巡游在塞纳河畔，描实碧绿河畔水景和万花争妍的春日田舍的施西里（Sisley 1839-1899）等，都是印象主义的中坚分子。由于这些画家的努力，就改变了一向来的美术观念：无论是在题材上，手法上和彩色上都完全改变了过去的法则。这是绘画进入视觉美术的纯粹绘画第一步，是全部美术史上的一个大转机。

后期印象派三圣

当印象派发展到最高潮的时候，又一个新画派出现了，这就是后期印象派（Neo-Impressionism）。因为十九世纪末叶，昌盛的科学所影响的范围是更加扩大了。摄影机发明之后，画家便自觉到绘画不是科学，画家更不是摄影机，同时并发现了这受科学影响的印象派绘画的种种缺点：认为那捕捉一瞬间的印象，研究光学原理的色彩运用，是缺乏了事物的充实内容的。于是他们就放弃了印象派的类似科学的表现方法，反对逼肖精透的再现自然中的某一刹那的色彩印象表现，在画法上另辟创了一个新天地。后期印象派的画家作画时，并不忠实于客观物体的外形表现，，而是根据自己的认识，去掉对象事物的繁琐细节，深入物象的内在生命中去；也就是说：在画面上出现的，是画家内心世界的表白，而不是客观存在的真实了。此派画家都一致地认为：户外的风景，一旦被移植在画布上，就已经不是原有的“自然美”，而是经过画家主观感情所渲染的“艺术美”了。后期印象派的画旨已是接近于表现派的边缘了。它也与印象主义一样，从东方绘画获得了启示；所不同的是印象主义采取了东方绘画的色调，而后期印象派就采用了它的线条。为了彻底了解这画派的风格与意旨，我们可以参照英国的艺术批评家白尔Clive Bell给后期印象派所下的定义：“全靠画家内心的真理去选择题材，只用表现那真理所必需的技法来选择形式，这就是后期印象派了！”

后期印象派的开拓者是塞尚、梵高与哥更。虽然从画风上去看，显然有着很大的差异，似乎不能算是同一个画派的作家；不过根据批评家Charles Marriott的话，我们就可以证明他们是站在同一战线上的美术革命者了。这位批评家说：“后期印象派是继蹤印象主义而崛起的一个画派，他们不像印象主义画家那样再现肉眼所见的印象，而是更进一步地表现画家对自然事物的心灵概念。这派的主要画家塞尚、梵高、哥更，他们固然各有其独特的表现方法，但是他们极力于表现内心的概念与情感，却是一致的！”这三位画家可说是后期印象派的始祖三圣，倘若不理解他们，便无法踏入二十世纪的现代美术境域。由于他们的影响，才产生了以后的野兽主义、立体主义，然后又再枝生旁流地出现了千种万类的美术主义，在艺海上汹涌澎湃地发展……。

塞尚（Paul Cezanne 1839-1906）是后期印象派的主将。他是一位毕生不知疲倦地埋头于创作的画家。在他来说，生活就是作画，作画也就是生活，生活与绘画已融合成一个不可分离的整体。他最喜欢画静物，因为静物可以让他作长时间的分析。他所热烈追求的是形体的结构，与画面的综合与统一。他要洞察事物的底奥，摭其精髓，逐渐把形体抽象化，改变了画面上的空间意识，他更从多元的观点去追求事物的感觉。这种注重表现实体感觉的论调，就引起了立体主义画派的诞生了！

梵高（Van Gogh 1853-1890）是一位感情热烈的画家。他有狂激的创作欲，喜欢运用奔放遒劲的笔触、活跃粗野的线条、明亮鲜艳的色彩、像风车一般旋转着的笔势来表现出内心如火焰一般的热情。他早期曾受到印象派的影响，采用过色彩点描法，不过这种太过拘束的技法，并不适于描绘出他心底的热情。所以，他很快就把印象派的技法扬弃了，创立自己独特的绘画风格。在他画面上的色彩，都充满了强烈的感情，尤其是那奔放的笔触，更能激起观者精神的跃动，那蜿蜒的线条，更具有活泼的韵律感。他在晚年所作的《向日葵》与《太阳和杉树》，完全是运用变形Deformation与夸张Exaspertion的手法来表现出内心的激烈感情的。所以他在画坛上的感染力，也像塞尚一样深深地使人感铭。他那鲜艳的色彩、奔放的线条、泼剌的旋力，都预了野兽主义画派发展的路线！

哥更（Paul Gauguin 1848-1903）是原始作风的创始者，曾经追随印象派毕沙罗的画风。后来却努力突破了视觉的限制，以明确的线OOOOOOOOOOOOO。他的画面上，具有极浓厚的线条，解放了印象主义的约束，创立了新鲜的综合法。他为了逃避巴黎混杂而又庸俗的都会生活，进躲到南太平洋的泰伊地岛去，和土人一同过着原始生活。他在岛上扱取题材，完成了许多有创作性的作品。画面上每一个简单的裸体，都蕴藏着纯朴无垢的原始华丽，给予观众以无限的魅惑力。

由于这三位后期印象派的开创画家努力的结果，这块美术的疆土，更是大大的摊开了表现的路；汇合了塞尚的“形体的结构”、梵高的“爆发性的热情”、与哥更的“单纯的综合法”，便融合成二十世纪的现代各派美术的主流。

野兽主义

野兽主义Fauvism是于一九0 0年，由马蒂斯（Matisse 1869-1954）领导而兴起的一种美术运动。因为这派画家的作风，是将后期印象派的“动”与“力”更推进一步。为了要在画面上表现出直接的生命律动，与内在精神的感应，于是便自由放任地以泼剌的线条、强烈对比的色彩、单纯的结构，粗野地以最直截的形式，将画家内心的情绪表露出来，因而赢得了这一个带有嘲讽性的名称。这些所谓“野兽派”画家，包括有画风粗犷有力的风景画家韦拉明克（Vlaminck 1876-1958）、喜爱运用棕色与橄榄绿的色调来力求画面调和统一的特朗（Derain 1880-1954）画风略带立体意味，力求表现形体自然感的弗里兹（Friesz 1879-1949）、色彩明快、线条轻松的杜菲（Dufy 1877-1953）、擅长以颜色的厚涂法，在画面上直接表现出强大的率直性感情的塞龙若克（Segonazc 1884）、带有浓厚东方绘画风味的马圭（Marquet 1875-1947）等。

马蒂斯不但是野兽主义的领导者，同时还是二十世纪最伟大的画家之一。他最初是受到梵高、哥更、秀拉与塞尚等几位后期印象派画家的影响。尤其是塞尚的写实性论据，给予他一种“变形”的自由表现手法，把握了绘画的实在感。同时他又倾力于哥更之综合的单纯化画面，经过了多次的变化，才使绘画达到成功充实的表现，构成了综合的美。大约是在一九〇五年的时候，非洲土人雕刻着巴黎的古董店出现了，于是这位野兽派的创拓者，又从黑人的雕刻中，获得了单纯化原理的启示。此后他画面上的线条省略，更达到极致之境了。第一次世界大战之后，他又从北欧的民间美术及东方的美术，获得了极大的感应。所以在他的画面上，就具有了浓厚的中东地毯的艳丽色调、与原始的民间织物的精巧装饰趣味的表现了。

立体主义

立体主义的画家，多是由野兽派蜕变过来的。这是在第一次世界大战之前，根据科学和知识为基础而兴起的新派画。开始时是根据塞尚所说的“自然界中的一切事物，都可以用球体、圆锥体、圆筒体或立方体表现出来 ……。”这几句话就成为立体派画家的理论基础了。同时非洲土人雕刻的质朴原始的立体表现法，也积极地给予他们莫大的启示，又综合了矿物学上的结晶原理，于是他们就将物体以单纯的几何形体，构成独特的形式，以土人雕刻的立体性，分割成尖锐的结晶状态表现在画面上。这就是立体主义的多面体表现法的时期了。

一九〇九年至一九一一间，毕加索（Picasso 1881）与白拉圭（Brague 1882）开诚地携手合作，并肩地创展了彻底新颖的分析立体主义。不论在形式上，色彩上或结构上，都经过严密的分解，然后根据几何学上的合乎比例的布置重新组织。从这分析立体派的画面上，我们可以看出画家是如何使用纯理智来处理这画里的空间，如何使用几何学上的造图设计，他们要将一物体从不同的角度，把每一方面都能同时在同一画面上完整的表现出来。所以我们在立体主义的画面上所看到的，就是通过万花镜式的多方面形态的构图表现。

一九一二年以后，立体主义的绘画又进展到第三种状态了，这就是所谓综合立体主义。这时期，画家可以较自由的选择他自己认为适合构图目的一切物象，用装饰化的形式，和合乎逻辑的根据，把它们综合起来，组织在一个画面上。

立体主义的绘画，因为过于艰涩，而且偏重于形、色、状量的配合，有如科学理论的图解，所以逐渐地就使画家发生了受形式约束@@甚之感,而不能有更进一步的发展，所以从一九一六年之后，这种把物象的形体以理论化、原则化表现在画面上的立体派绘画，便渐次衰落了。
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毕加索的画风，一向是以多变出名的。自他由西班牙卜居巴黎之后，就深受到印象派画家的影响，其后又热心地研究塞尚的绘画。一九一〇年开画展时，多以描画贫苦人民为题材，是为他画风的“蓝色时期”。到一九〇五年之后，又改用绯红色调来作画，是为“红色时期”。及至一九〇六年，他便创辟了立体主义的美术。因得批评家阿波里南尔Apollinair的热烈鼓吹，所以毕加索便由此哄动世界了。在往后的几十年中，他忽而以新古典主义问世，忽而又以新自然主义出现，他那多才善变的作风，是随着时代的潮流演进，决不终止的。后来他又曾一度努力于超现实主义的美术工作了。他是不停地探索，不停的创造。不过大体上说来，他一向是努力地作着抽象的尝试来表现他个人崭新的意象的！

白拉圭曾属野兽派画家，在一九〇八年与毕加索结交之后，便开始放弃了以往的手法，归附于塞尚的影响之下，自由地歪曲形象。他的分析立体派绘画是开始于一九一〇年的。不久，他又开始将文字组合在他的构图里，这就是进入综合立体派的时期了。他这种美术上的转变是很自然的，因为他的父亲是一位室内装饰匠，他为了要符合纸板壁画的装饰用途，所以便插入这些经过艺术创造的抽象化美术，可以增加不少的美感。

至第一次大战服役归来后，他的画风更转向平和稳静的装饰意味了，嗜爱运用白、黑、茶绿和茶黄为基本色彩，利用大块的色区组织纯柔甘美的画面，对于色彩与形式的组合，虽然还残留下立体主义画面构成的特色。不过他那既和谐又有力，且还充满着抒情诗一般气氛的画面，是任何人也及不到的独特风格。

表现主义

自从野兽主义断然地举起了反抗学院派美术，强调艺术为“自我精神的表现”的旗帜之后。现代的绘画就开始了可惊的发展，首先是

产生了法国的立体主义画派，几乎是同时，意大利就有了未来主义的画派，德国也产生了美术的革新运动，即“表现主义”Expressionism。这是一个广义的流派，包括的范围也很广，这美术运动的影响所及也很复杂，决不能以几句话就可以确定地给它来个清楚的定义。我们只能够由这画派的宗旨，以及几个主要画家的作风，去了解它的意义，明白它的梗概而已。

表现主义的美术，虽然是野兽主义的反映，不过他所重视的问题，却是与野兽主义大大的不同。大致上看来，野兽派的画面是甘美而陶醉的，表现派的画面却是认真而严烈的。再以画家的作画态度来说，也是迥然各异。野兽派画家是用纯粹的美感、以线和色来构成简单足以表现内心感情的画面，所要求的只是纯粹的绘画感觉。表现主义的画家，是要贯通物象或形式，主观地分析、强调地表现出内在的精神，所追求的是画家自我精神之哲学反省，向画面的表现。总括地说，表现主义并不是以如何表现绘画为前提，而是以如何表现精神的内容为前提的。这表现主义美术的精神，是通过法国的哲学家柏格森Bergson的创造进化论与德国哲学家叔佩Schuppe的主观现象论为基础，其主观的肯定思想，又是从德国哲学家尼采Nietzsche的权力意志论的自我实现说产生出来的。表现派画家为了要创造一种激烈的感情，或具体化的情绪时，也偶而运用光来表明情节上的关系。所以表现主义是主观化的、动的、探究的，是画家的思想推论，从画面上表现出来的一种美术风格。

现在根据此派画家的作风，可以大略地将表现派分为三个基本的风格：

（一） 桥梁派（The Bridge）的出色画家，包括有运用木刻手法刻划画面的克须纳（Kirchner 1880-1938）。喜爱运用强烈的色调，原始的形态来构成画面的乐尔特（Nolde 1867-1956）。擅用平滑柔软的笔触、装饰趣味的色调來描画的佩许泰因（Pechstein）。由立体派感化而趋向表现画面描绘的罗特鲁夫（Rottluff 1884）。多采取吉普赛人生活为画因的缪勒（Muellerc1874-1930）。这一群画家多受到梵高与哥更的影响，并以非洲土人的雕刻品与野兽派美术为典据，用歪曲形式的技法，破坏那既定位置的外形，赋予它情绪上的真髓，但仍有表现与形体在画面上表现出来。

（二） 青骑士派（The Blue Rider）的杰出画家，，有应用立体的变形，使用明快的色彩，平滑而流畅的笔触来描绘幻想中之动物的马克（Mar 1880-1916）、擅长于运用具有量感与质感的线条，以儿童一般纯洁的心，描画出天真可爱的世界之克利（Klee 1879-1940），惯以平面而富有律动感的抽象构图与象征性的闪耀色彩来组成画面的左兰斯基（Jawlensky 1864-1941），和专以色、线、形组织抽象画面的康定斯基等。

此派绘画是属抽象类，结合哥更的单纯综合主义、狄牢尼的色彩学论和原始的民间艺术为基础，将纯主观的感情，藉色调构成有节奏感的画面，以求达到最高、最纯的自我精神表现。

（三） 新客观主义（New Objectivity）的画家，包括有善于表现战争的恐怖与残酷事迹的狄斯（Dix 1891），在画面表现出单纯性和静止力的许林柏（Schrimpf 1889-1942），痛击人类丑恶欲望的格罗斯（Grosz 1893）。

此派绘画是以形象性为主的，它将表现主义的主观观念引到现实的感觉性上，一反激情的桥梁派和青骑士派的画风，转向平稳静止的冷酷描画是理性的表现法。

除了以上提出的表现主义三画派之外，还有许多独立的或象征的表现派画家，如：有着梵高一般热情的，以粗大的线条在画面上作厚重表现的澳籍画家柯科斯加（Kokoschka 1886）喜用低沉的色调、粗糙豪迈的笔触，像哥特教堂的彩色玻璃画一样，强烈地刻划出他心目中的人间地狱，以及宗教理想的法国画家卢奥（Rouault 1871-1958），善于以阴郁的情绪，表现黑暗人间的冲动和恐怖感的挪威画家曼区（Munch 1863-1944），喜爱描画饥饿的小孩与苍老的树木的俄国画家邵定（Soutine 1894-1943）等，都是表现画派家群中之佼佼者。

此外尚有所谓超现实的表现主义、抽象的表现主义、写实的表现主义等画风，汇成了二十世纪美术最浩瀚的洪流。

未来主义与纯粹主义

自从近代的科学勃兴之后，机械的进步，一刻也未曾休止。尤其是当十九世纪末至二十世纪初之间，机械的发达，已创立了可惊的功绩。举凡以前用手工制造的物品，现在都可以改用机器大量地生产。过去要靠步行或利用牲畜拉车以解决交通的问题，现在都可以乘飞机或搭汽车了。人类天天运用科学力量来征服时间与空间，所以就变成了机械万能的时代，速力的世界。结果不但影响了社会组织上的变动，促成了经济上的变化，各方面都隐伏着不能解决的问题，现实的物质生活也影响了人心的“不安”。当然，这支配在时代精神、与人类思想的影响之下而产生的现代美术，也就呈现出动荡多变的形式了。

当时，那些敏感的诗人与画家，对于机械利用结果的“速力”问题尤其关心。所以一九〇九年意大利的诗人马里耐迪（Marinetti 1878）便发表了未来主义的宣言，翌年意大利的五位青年画家即波契尼（Boccioni 1882），加拉（Carra 1881）,卢梭罗（Russolo 1885）波拉（Balla 1871）与锡华里尼（Severini 1883），也继起响应了未来主义诗人的主张，标榜着未来主义而首创一种变风的表现。他们要把在科学影响之下的连续多变的未来生活，作为一切美术的形式，所以他们绘画的题材，多是驰行着的汽车、火车或跳舞等运动状态。未来派的画家也运用立体主义的分析与综合的方法，先把一切的形象破坏，然后以一种贯通的光轴和色度来增进或传达急激运动中的感觉。未来派与立体派的不同点，是在于前者的绘画是时间性的表现，后者是空间方面的解决。未来派的画家，认为静止的美术是不足以反应时代精神的。所以他们热烈地赞美现代的物质文明和未来的新创造，极力地歌颂速力与狂热的活动性，在画面上直接地表现出激扰、暴力与急激的感情现象。

一九一八年左右，又有一批以奥正凡（Ozenfant 1886）和金勒烈（Jeaneret 1887）为首的纯粹主义画派出现了。因为他们感觉到立体主义已进展到牛角尖去，成为一种颓废的装饰公式了。他们认为要补救这缺点，就必须减少美术形式的着重技巧表现，废除一切装饰的幻想成分，只保留着立体主义所依据的物力论，改变成一个明晰的机械形式，足以象征我们所生活的时代的画面表现。这派画家对于“画面的重叠”与“物象不同角度的同时表现”的技法是并重的。这种纯粹主义美术，因为没有画家的感受性，只是头脑中的“合理产物”，所以在画面上极难把握到绘画的效果。不过，在建筑方面却是非常的成功，对后来工业设计的影响也很大。金勒烈便是目前世界著名的建筑家Le Corbusier其人。这种纯粹主义的美术在现代的新建筑方面已是广泛地被运用到了。

未来主义与纯粹主义虽然都是从立体主义分化出来，各走极端的美术运动；虽然他们也都一样的用了满腔的热情来赞美机械，不过两派画家所持的观点却是迥然各异的：未来主义（Futurism）是倾向于激烈速力的运动感；纯粹主义（Purism）却是趋向于安定的稳静美。未来主义急欲投向将来；纯粹主义却在默想过去，所以在画面上你可以明确地区别出，未来主义是如何地向注急速运转着的机械动力，纯粹主义则赞颂着机械在静止状态中的稳定感与严密性。概括地说来，纯粹主义的画家是以几何学上的单纯形式来作画，并不属极端的抽象绘画，而是类像建筑学上的设计形式。他们并不企图在画面上引起观者激奋精神，而只给予一种安稳愉悦的感觉。他们不是以情绪或感情来统辖画面，而是运用智力的理论来支配他们的画面的。

当奥正凡与金勒烈倡导纯粹主义的美术运动之后，法国的另一位大画家列哲（Leger 1881-1955），也受到极大的影响。当一九一四年他应征入工兵团服役时，那装甲机械与新武器都已留给他极深刻的印象。同时他又根据几何原理，把塞尚论据中的圆柱体、圆锥体和圆筒体组成“对称的形体”，将纯粹主义美术更推进于彻底，构成了他画幅上革命性@形，确定了“机械主义”（Mechanism）的美术风格。后来，他更进一步地扩大了空间的感觉，使之臻于装饰性的风味。用机械的形式变更物象事物的@@，在画面上把物象的平面图案，表现出现代物质的文明与人间的意味！

所以说：纯粹主义的美术在建筑方面是以金勒烈为完成者；在绘画方面，显然地却是以列哲的机械主义美术才得以大成的。

涡纹主义与至上主义

涡纹主义（Orphism）是于一九二二年，由法国画家狄牢尼（Delaunay 1885-1941）所倡导的一种美术革新运动。当时正值分析立体主义蓬勃发展的时期。这派画家感觉到立体派的美术过于缺乏色彩的表现，同时物象的形式束缚亦过紧，所以就针对着立体派的分析主义美术为前提，要将这种纯用理智分析、冷酷地表现事物实体形象的绘画，从形式结构的难题中解放出来。此派绘画，对颜色的明度及纯度，以及波长或频率的偏差，都作彻底的观察与研究，然后以对比色彩的配合，产生出的色阶变度，以音乐性的要求，在画面上融合了形式，构成带有大合奏音响的强烈表现，形成现代纯抽象美术的一大特色。涡纹主义的美术，在色彩的运用方面，影响表现主义的青骑士派画家最大！

至上主义（Suprematism）也像涡纹主义一样，是从分析立体主义演绎而成的。它的画旨是绝缘物质，仅运用线和色作为绘画上的手法，以单纯的几何形式构成抽象的画面，以求得至高精神的意味表现。着重于画面上几何形体的重感与线条的动向，藉它们相互间的关联来求得画面上的动力与平衡的美感。此派的首创画家，是俄国的马里威契（Malevich 18#8-1935）。他完全运用简单的几何图形如：菱形、圆形、正方形、或长方形，断续的直线或曲线组成错综的抽象画面。一九一三年，他就以这种画风，在莫斯科开了他的个展，创立了至上主义的新美术风格。到一九一五年，在朱里克Zurich的阿尔柏（Arp 1887）、佛罗梭斯Forence的麦里尼（Magnelli 1888）也受其影响，开始运用简单的几何形式来创作抽象绘画了。

总之，涡纹主义与至上主义的倡始者，都是因为不满足于分析立体主义的绘画，而脱颖独创的一种无表象的纯抽象美术。涡纹主义的狄牢尼以市场统御形式，他运用色彩学理论作为绘画上的根据，认为色彩同时对照所产生的色散结果，可以在画面上表现出动力感、与音乐性的节奏感。当时的批评家阿波里南尔Apollinaire认为狄氏有古典神话中描实的古希腊凑乐名家Orpheus的意图，所以就把他所倡导的画派名为Orphism。至上主义的马里威契则追求以更纯粹的线形，在画面上创作出运动的图像或静止的意态。他要将宇宙万象全纳入寥寥几种的几何形体中，在画面上表现了单纯的平衡美，构成了纯抽象的美术风格。这两派都一样追求单纯的美，注重画面上的动律感。所不同的，只是涡纹主义是重视色彩的画派；他们要藉色彩对比的强弱的，如音乐一般在同一个旋律上活动，表现出画面的美感。至上主义则是重视形式的画派，他们组合具有量感的几何形与运动的线划，在画面上表现出动势与平衡美。虽然这两派的美术并没有多大的持久力，可是却给予后辈的画家们以莫大的启示呢！
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达达主义与超现实主义

达达主义于一九一六年，由许多愤世嫉俗的画家，在瑞士的朱利克所兴起的一种狂暴激烈的美术运动。当时最活跃的画家是毕加比尔（Picabia 1878）与杜粲（Duchamp 1887）等。他们以一种破坏性的虚无主义来摧残一切的旧传统，疯狂地与世俗相忤，热中于一种无理性的表现方法，直接地在画面上暴露了社会上的一切丑恶与不合理事件，表露出他们对残忍战争的嫌恶感。所以我们从达达派美术的画面上所领略到的不是讽刺、精神谩骂的意味。不过这种破坏性的美术仅以昙花一现的姿态出现，对一九二一年便完全销声匿迹了。正如一位作家所描述的：“达达主义是含笑而终了！”诚然，从一九二一年之后，整个欧洲社会已呈现出繁荣的现象，人民的生活也有了乐观的前途，不再有战时的惶恐与绝望。所以达达主义的画家，已找不到足够供他们作为苛刻詈骂的题材，他们的主张也已经因潮流 演进而变成腐旧的论调了！所以它还不含笑而终更待何时呢？

接着达达派的画家便舍去了所有一切对外界社会的关心，而走回纯粹为自己着想的一种艺术创造的明朗世界中来。他们已消除了达达主义时期的破坏性与否定性，倾向于心理学上的实验主义，极力分析人类的下意识活动。从这派画家的作品中，我们可以区别出两种不同
的作风：一种是以达丽（Dali 1904）与唐圭（Tanguy 1900-1955）为代表的象征样式。他们都是以深幽的远景，暗示时间的推移，在画面上创作出一种梦幻似的空气感，运用纯净的色彩，表达出浓厚的幻想意味。唐圭更是一个宇宙论者，他以丰富的想象力和发自潜意识的诗情，自由地去探求宇宙间的秘密。另一种风格则以马申（Masson 1896）与阿尔柏（Arp 1888）为代表，完全是以一种游戏性质的形式组合画面，倾向于怪异题材的描写。

超现实主义的美术是凭藉画家的意念，随意把所取的形象、感想或幻想所及的事物，杂然地配合在同一个画面上，作出一种梦幻或象征的表现。这派的绘画是一种理念所难理解的诗，是神秘的空想世界。画家所追求的终极理想，就是使诗画能融合成一体。他们曾宣言道：“@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@”由此我们知道，超现实主义所描画的非现实中的现实绘画，是从佛罗伊德（Sigmund Freud 1856-1936）的潜意识学说中，获得了概念上的@@@@@@@。


康定斯基的绝对主义美术

康定斯基（Wassily Kandinsky 1866-1944）在现代的美术史上，以及整个抽象美术的发展过程中，是占有着极特殊的重要地位的。他最初的志愿，是想成为一个音乐家。可是事与愿违，竟于一八九三成为莫斯科大学的法学士，从事法律的职务。然而他无法从这工作中，找到他的职业乐趣。所以便于一八九五年结束了他的职务，专心研究绘画。并且到各地旅行，直接观摩和研究各派的绘画。他认为当时毕加索的形式和马蒂斯的色彩，都是指示画家到达一个伟大终点的两支美术路标。起初，他深受野兽派的影响。当一九〇八年回到慕尼黑之后，就以抽象的表现主义绘画，出现在青骑士派的展览会中。于一九一〇年，他首次创作了无形象的抽象主义绘画。此后的卅余年中，他始终站定岗位，根据罗马法学家所极崇信的自然法，以本身的内心情绪与客观形式的观点，运用变形的手法去探究宇宙万象的“本质”。他认为这种“本质”是从性能中出发，有普遍性与必然性。世界万有都是永受其制御的。他以此为纯粹绘画的绝对精神。在他的《精神和谐的艺术论》与《形式上的问题》这两部著作中，我们可以发现他是经过了多少的实验与研究，才发掘了抽象绘画的基本精神，才创立了这合乎逻辑而有系统的美术理论。许多人都认为他是为了自己的作品，才写绘画论的。而且他的论据又是那么的抽象，使人疑惑不解而认为神秘。其实，当你明白现代绘画的创作是由于画家的自我表现时，你就不难对这位画家及其艺术作更进一步的了解了。因他爱好音乐，本有成为音乐家的意欲，所以他在美术上便是力求色彩的精神交响。他潜心研究色彩心理学、色彩的水平运动和远心求心运动。他要将色比音，在画面上求其表现出音乐一般的优美情趣！至于他那完全没有足以引起对自然物象真切感的形式，只运用点、线、面、体的交织结构所组成的抽象构图，也是他自我内心表现的印感。因为他是法学士，所以在自我的意识上，就免不了具备了许多法学精神的气质。因而他竟很自然地将斯多噶Stoic School学派的自然哲学论运用到美术上来。

他的作风也就是他的人格，终其一生都委身于美术的钻研工作中。无论是对生活或艺术，都一律采取决不妥协的态度和坚毅忠实于独创的精神，他慨然地接受世人对他的冷嘲热讽，也未尝稍变初衷。现在他那慎密的绘画论已给予画人无限的信心与勇气，许多抽象美术都是由于他的影响或启示而分化出来的。批评家称誉他为“廿世纪的乔多（Giotto）”。可不是吗？他那表现了高度才智的绘画，显然已是本世纪抽象美术的标帜，新一代的美术领域也是由他拓展的！

蒙特里安的新造型主义美术

我相信大家对蒙特里安（Mondrian 1872-1944）的新造型美术，一定不会感到陌生吧！因为这种美术已广泛地被利用的建筑学、家具、室内布置和广告设计等多方面去了。举凡每天所看到的以红、蓝、黄个原色漆饰墙面的新建筑物，和以方块的色彩玻璃或纸板装饰门面的洋行餐馆，都是新造型主义美术实用的结果。然而大家可曾知道这就是蒙特里安的影响所致吗？

这位现代荷兰最杰出的画家，与康定斯基的造就是一样伟大的。他的抽象美术是脱胎于立体主义。一九一四那之后，他就开始将自然物象变形，以极单纯的加减符号，组成富有节奏感的抽象画面。这是新造型主义美术的前身。至一九一七年，他联合一群画家、雕刻家、建筑家与哲学家合办了艺术杂志《风格》，极力鼓吹新造型主义的美术。从这时候起，他更热中于探求绘画上的新颖感觉，因而创立了独特的画风。

新造型主义美术的主旨，是要设法使千变万化的自然现象，归复于明确关系的造型表现。为了再现宇宙组织的特征，所以美术也应该如精密的数学一样。物象是在人类的心意之外存在的，那千变万化的物象，在自然中的变化，都是遵循着一种绝对不变的法则，这就是造型上的法则。因此此派美术反对个性主义的主观表现，追求一种通有性的绝对不变定型，作精密正确的客观描实。从这一论点看来，蒙特里安与康定斯基的美术论，又是显然地各走极端的。蒙特里安的抽象概念，是由他一位朋友Schoenmackes所创立的新学说影响所致的。我们从蒙特里安的画面上，多少可以意味到他那崇信“惟一绝对实在之一元论”的新柏拉图学派的哲学概念！新造型美术是限定由纯粹的几何学形式组合而成的，地平线与垂直线必须成直角相交。以长方形为画面上的基本形式，以红、蓝、黄三原色为基色，再加上黑、白、灰三色素。从色泽的轻重，与量的多寡，作适当的配置组织起来。以求达到美学上的和谐与平衡为目的。他为了追求画面上的调和与@@度、精确与平衡，竟数十年如一日的淡泊潜@@。所以终究能够求得高度完美的谐协，使他能与林勃兰、梵高并列为荷兰美术的三杰；并与康定斯基同时被认为是抽象绘画的两大开山祖！

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我们对近百年来的美术发展，作了一番观察之后，不免都会为它的分歧善变感到惊诧。尤其是自塞尚以后，美术上所兴起的主义，更是多得不可胜计。单就近半世纪以来的抽象美术，就已经有二十多个不同的系统与方式了。我们当然无法一一列举，只能举出几个对后来影响较大的画派作一番简述而已。美术运动虽然标榜着记也记不清的主义，绘画上也呈现出万花撩乱的样式，千种万样的风格，不过从这形形色色的各派美术中，我们可以发现它们不论怎样演变，都是遵循着结构上的形式或色彩与思想上的主观或客观的路道而进行的。所以我们若能从美术上的根本性质去观看，就不难分析清楚了。同时从各派美术的演变中，还可以发现每一种新美术的创立，不但是直接从旧传统转移而成，同时还把旧传统中的一些有用的元素保存在自己的内部，把无用的元素扬弃之后，再与新的积极有用的元素相融合之后，才算完成了发展过程而开始新过程的。法国著名的哲学家柏格森曾经说过：“事物的存在，是因为它有变化，因有变化，所以才能成熟，成熟的原因是由于不断自我创造的结果！”我想用这几句话来说明美术的演变，真是再恰当也没有的了！

The universe is a great life, and all living beings and phenomena are manifestations of this great life. It is through the continuous activities of human beings that this great life is constantly renewed, and art is certainly no exception. Because art is a product of human spirit and cultural zeitgeist, it is constantly changing and evolving due to internal contradictions, changes in the spirit of the times, and shifts in human thought. Regardless of the era, each era's art harbors the spirit of the times and has its own characteristics.

Looking back on history, we can understand that ancient Greek artists sought the pursuit of elegance and beauty. They despised shallow realism and were enthusiastic about ideal representation. In simple terms, they belonged entirely to idealism. On the other hand, ancient Roman artists pursued faithful representation of nature, imitating nature, and adhered to absolute realism in art. Although, from the perspective of the entire history of Western art, the art of ancient Greece and Rome is collectively referred to as "classical art." However, if we compare the art of ancient Greece and Rome separately, we can easily see that ancient Greek art is elegant, while Roman art tends to be vulgar. In the medieval Christian art, the emphasis on spiritual expression led to a sense of piety and spiritual elevation. By the Renaissance, humanity affirmed its right to exist and recognized its creative power, and artists began to express their inner activities in their works. In the Baroque era of the 17th century and the Rococo era of the 18th century, art deviated from the realities of life and adopted a style that was extravagant but not substantial. By the 19th century, influenced by the French Revolution, the excavation of Pompeii, and the disillusionment with Rococo-style art, as well as the enthusiastic advocacy of the famous archaeologist and critic Winckelmann (1717-1768), all art trends tended towards classical revival. Thus, the modern history of Western art began with classicism. Romanticism then broke away from the inheritance and uniform spirit of classicism and used vibrant colors to express the vitality of life. After the decline of Romanticism, realism emerged, praising reality without exaggeration or fantasy. The spirit of realism restored the independence of painting. At the same time, due to the advancement of science, the influence on art trends led realist artists to deny the inherent colors and tones, and further explore new revelations from the study of external light. Under the keen observation of the Impressionist master Manet, realism in painting became more thorough.

The essence of Western art is centered around the spirit of ancient Greece during the Renaissance period, transmitted from Rome to Italy, until the Renaissance period, it was nurtured by the spirit of classical art. After the Renaissance, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the era of classicism still prevailed everywhere. Overall, the prevailing trend of art thought during this period was set by Italy. After the 19th century, the center of Western art shifted from Italy to France. Especially in the modern era of the 20th century, most of the changes in artistic trends are attributed to the influence of France, which is beyond dispute!

Looking at the evolution of past artistic trends, each transition from one tradition to another often took centuries, if not millennia. That is to say, the process of change in the history of art, influenced by human emotions and life, is very slow. However, the modern art of the twentieth century unleashed an uncontrollable wave right from the start. Those who proclaimed radical artistic ideas appeared in a state of extreme risk-taking, seemingly indicating their break from the old traditions of art. Dissatisfied with and resistant to the objective depiction of naturalism, realism, and impressionism, they abandoned all inherited traditional forms of art and devoted themselves to a fervent subjective expression, dedicating themselves to exploring the world of sensation. Therefore, various ever-changing and novel art movements emerged in the early stages of this century like mushrooms after rain! This bizarre and ever-changing modern art plunged people's emotions and spirits into a state of confusion and perplexity, thereby causing intense opposition from people decades ago. However, in less than half a century, this modern abstract art has overcome resistance and, as victorious conquerors, entered a new stage of the art world, becoming the dominant trend of modern art. This extreme transformation is profoundly significant, as its success has greatly influenced the direction of artists' creation, from techniques and forms to aesthetic concepts, and expanded the narrow perceptions and horizons of modern people. Up to now, whether you like it or not, in many respects, Picasso and Matisse have replaced Rubens (1577-1640) or Rembrandt (1606-1669) in people's minds; Kandinsky, Mondrian have received even warmer welcome than Repin (1844-1930) or Van Eyck (1380-1441). The disdainful and mocking attitudes towards modern art that existed in the early years of this century have indeed gradually disappeared with time. Nowadays, everyone takes it seriously and seriously studies and discusses its future development!

As I mentioned earlier, the evolution of art is due to the influence of the spirit of the times and the human spirit. The complex and abstract forms of modern art are precisely a symbol of the rapid changes in our century. The tension and complexity of modern life have long been accompanied by the industrial revolution of modern times. The progress of science, the invention of machinery, economic issues, and the material forces are all fiercely pressing on the human spirit. Therefore, modern artists are perplexed by these dazzling changes in life. They have been greatly influenced by the materialistic pressures of life and seek their own spiritual paths in this turbulent era. Therefore, when abstract modern art emerged, it fearlessly overwhelmed the vulgar and sordid materialism of the late 19th century, sweeping away the previous concepts of painting and opening up another path of expression with the extreme expression of personality and self. Therefore, modern art unfolds its operation under this new consciousness.

To understand modern art, we must first have a clear concept of the evolution of artistic trends, and then understand the basic ideas and theoretical basis of various artistic schools. Because modern art has indeed overturned all the old traditional rules and changed the concepts of space and time on the canvas, using multiple perspectives or subjective consciousness, exaggerated forms, and symbolic colors to unfold free and unrestrained expressions, which make it difficult for people to understand and feel confused. In fact, these colorful painting styles have not completely departed from the chain of traditional art, and they have evolved from the footsteps of the ancients. Therefore, as long as we briefly explore the process of the rise and fall of various painting schools, it is not difficult to discover that they are all new links in the chain of historical art, and they have not completely disconnected from the foundation of art! Because history is not repeating itself, modern art has added new meaning and value to its evolution, and then made its debut in the history of art!

To understand the significance of various artistic schools, we must first trace the origins of the formation of these schools. In this way, it is not difficult for you to grasp the essence of them from the thousands of dazzling styles. Since the Impressionist movement, painting has completely moved towards the essence of pure painting. It was only in the late Impressionist period that painting began to move away from visual description and into purely subjective inner expression or objective rational expression. Therefore, regarding the evolution of modern artistic trends, we should start with Impressionism, which centers on light.

Impressionism

Since the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, art has followed the spirit of the times or other artistic evolutions, transforming from Courbet's realism into another new school of painting, which is broadly known as Impressionism. The stimulus and inspiration for this school of artists came from the avoidance of meticulous realism by English landscape painters Turner and Constable, starting from the general and seeking freedom and liveliness in expression from rules, as well as the techniques of using color intensity by the Spanish painter Velasquez to represent distance, and the color contrast method of the Romantic painter Delacroix. Especially when Manet and Monet lived in the Netherlands and saw the oriental paintings collected by the Dutch, they felt that the realism of these oriental painters was concise and implicit, with subjects mostly from the natural world, and what was depicted on the canvas was the artists' first impression of things. They gained great resonance and inspiration from this, so they advocated going out of the studio to carefully observe the interrelationship between light and color in nature, resolutely abandoning the brown tones indoors and faithfully depicting scenes illuminated by sunlight. At that time, due to the advancement of physics, theories related to optics and color science continued to emerge, and painters were influenced by the scientific trend, thus beginning to apply theories of optics and color science to painting. In this regard, Monet was more accomplished than Manet; he had already mastered special techniques for representing light. He observed nature with a calm mind, analyzed nature, and regarded the vibration of light as the center of depicting all natural phenomena, believing that light and color are the life of painting. He accurately depicted the subtle changes in color, atmosphere, and light and shadow under different times and different lighting conditions. In the paintings he produced in his later years, such as the series of "Water Lilies" and "Venice," the rich sense of light and the harmonious beauty of tones, particularly the dazzling charm of nature, were more able to represent the authentic style of Impressionism. Therefore, the great achievement of the color revolution in Impressionism can indeed be said to have been pioneered by Manet, and Monet succeeded greatly.

There are many outstanding painters in Impressionism, such as Pissarro (1830-1903), who was good at depicting the quiet and simple beauty of the countryside, Renoir (1841-1920), who excelled in portraying the soft, delicate, elastic, and charming beauty of the female body, Degas (1834-1917), who was skilled at depicting momentary movements and postures, Toulous-Lautrec (1864-1901), who enjoyed portraying the lives of the petit bourgeois, and Sisley (1839-1899), who spent his days wandering along the banks of the Seine, depicting the verdant riverbanks and the colorful spring countryside. They are all backbone members of Impressionism. Thanks to the efforts of these painters, the traditional concept of art has been changed: in terms of subject matter, techniques, and colors, all the previous rules have been completely changed. This is the first step for painting to enter the realm of visual art, and it is a major turning point in the entire history of art.

The three saints of Post-Impressionism.

Neo-Impressionism, also known as Post-Impressionism, emerged as a new art movement when Impressionism reached its peak. By the late 19th century, the influence of thriving science had expanded. With the invention of the camera, painters became aware that painting was not a science, and painters were not cameras. They also discovered the various shortcomings of Impressionist painting influenced by science: they believed that capturing a momentary impression and studying the use of color based on optical principles lacked substantial content. Consequently, they abandoned the scientific approach similar to Impressionism and opposed the precise reproduction of a momentary color impression in nature, instead pioneering a new realm in painting techniques. When Neo-Impressionist painters created their works, they did not faithfully represent the external appearance of objective objects; instead, they delved into the inner life of objects by removing intricate details, expressing the painter's inner world on the canvas, rather than depicting objective reality. These painters unanimously believed that once outdoor scenery was transplanted onto canvas, it ceased to be the original "natural beauty" but became the "artistic beauty" rendered by the subjective emotions of the painter. The aim of Neo-Impressionist painting was close to the edge of Expressionism. Like Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism was inspired by Oriental paintings; however, while Impressionism adopted the color tones of Oriental painting, Neo-Impressionism adopted its lines. To thoroughly understand the style and intent of this movement, we can refer to the definition given by the English art critic Clive Bell: "Relying entirely on the painter's inner truth to select subjects, and using only the techniques necessary to express that truth to choose forms, that is Neo-Impressionism!"

The pioneers of Neo-Impressionism were Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin. Although there are significant differences in their styles, they can be considered as artists on the same revolutionary front, according to the critic Charles Marriott. He stated, "Neo-Impressionism is a movement that rose after Impressionism. Unlike Impressionist painters who reproduce what they see with the naked eye, they further express the painter's mental concepts of natural objects. The main painters of this movement, Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin, each have their unique expression methods, but they all strive to express inner concepts and emotions." These three painters can be considered as the founding fathers of Neo-Impressionism. Without understanding them, one cannot step into the realm of modern art in the 20th century. Because of their influence, movements such as Fauvism and Cubism emerged, followed by a myriad of artistic styles, surging and developing vigorously in the sea of art.

Cezanne (1839-1906) was the main figure of Neo-Impressionism. He was a tireless painter who devoted his entire life to creation. For him, life was painting, and painting was life; they were inseparable. He especially enjoyed painting still life because it allowed him to analyze for long periods. He passionately pursued the structure of form and the synthesis and unity of the picture. He sought to penetrate the essence of things, gradually abstracting forms and changing the spatial consciousness of the picture. He pursued the perception of objects from multiple perspectives. This emphasis on expressing tangible sensations led to the birth of Cubism.

Van Gogh (1853-1890) was an emotionally intense painter with a fervent desire for creation. He liked to use bold and vigorous brushstrokes, lively and wild lines, and bright and vibrant colors to express his inner passion. He was initially influenced by Impressionism and used pointillism, but this overly restrictive technique did not suit his passionate nature. Therefore, he quickly abandoned Impressionist techniques and established his unique painting style. The colors in his paintings were full of intense emotions, especially his bold brushstrokes, which stirred the spirits of viewers. His winding lines also had a lively rhythm. In his later works, such as "Sunflowers" and "Sun and Cypress Trees," he used deformation and exaggeration to express intense emotions. Therefore, his influence in the art world deeply moved people, just like Cezanne. His bright colors, bold brushstrokes, and swirling energy paved the way for the development of Fauvism.

Gauguin (1848-1903) was the pioneer of primitive style. He initially followed Pissarro's Impressionist style. Later, he made efforts to break through visual limitations, using clear lines. His paintings had strong lines, freeing them from Impressionist constraints and establishing a fresh synthesis method. In order to escape the vulgar and mixed metropolitan life of Paris, he fled to the island of Tahiti in the South Pacific and lived a primitive life with the indigenous people. He drew inspiration from the island and created many innovative works. Every simple nude figure in his paintings exuded the pure and magnificent beauty of primitiveness, captivating viewers endlessly.

Thanks to the efforts of these three pioneering Neo-Impressionist artists, the territory of art has expanded greatly, opening up new paths for expression. The combination of Cezanne's "structural form," Van Gogh's "explosive passion," and Gauguin's "simple synthesis" merged into the mainstream of various modern art movements in the 20th century.

Fauvism

Fauvism, led by Matisse (1869-1954), emerged as an art movement in 1900. The style of these painters was to further advance the "movement" and "force" of late Impressionism. In order to express direct vitality on the canvas and resonate with inner spirit, they freely used bold lines, strong contrasting colors, and simple structures, revealing the artist's emotions in the most direct form, thus earning this somewhat mocking name. These so-called "Fauvist" painters included landscape painter Vlaminck (1876-1958) with his powerful and rugged style, Derain (1880-1954) who favored using brown and olive green tones to achieve harmony and unity in the composition, Friesz (1879-1949) who hinted at three-dimensionality and sought to depict natural form, Dufy (1877-1953) who employed bright colors and relaxed lines, Segonzac (1884) who applied thick layers of color to directly express strong, sincere emotions on the canvas, and Marquet (1875-1947) who infused his work with a strong flavor of Oriental painting.

Matisse was not only the leader of Fauvism but also one of the greatest painters of the 20th century. He was initially influenced by several late Impressionist painters such as Van Gogh, Gauguin, Seurat, and Cezanne. Especially influenced by Cezanne's theory of realism, he gained a sense of "deformation" as a means of free expression, grasping the reality of painting. At the same time, he devoted himself to the simplicity and synthesis of Gauguin's paintings, which, after many transformations, led to successful and enriching representations, forming a comprehensive beauty. Around 1905, African tribal sculptures appeared in Parisian antique shops, and this pioneer of Fauvism drew inspiration from the simplicity principle found in African art. Subsequently, the lines in his paintings became even more simplified. After World War I, he was deeply inspired by folk art from Northern Europe and Eastern art. As a result, his paintings exhibited vibrant color palettes reminiscent of Middle Eastern carpets and the intricate decorative motifs of primitive folk fabrics.

Cubism

Cubist painters mostly evolved from the Fauvist movement. It was a new style of painting that emerged before the First World War, based on scientific knowledge. It began with the idea proposed by Cézanne that "everything in nature can be represented using spheres, cones, cylinders, or cubes..." These words became the theoretical foundation for Cubist painters. At the same time, the simple and primitive three-dimensional representation in African tribal sculptures also provided them with significant inspiration. By combining principles from mineralogy, they depicted objects as simple geometric shapes and portrayed them on the canvas in a crystalline state, inspired by the three-dimensional aspect of tribal carvings. This marked the period of polyhedral representation in Cubism.

Between 1909 and 1911, Picasso and Braque worked together in close collaboration, pioneering a completely novel form of analytical Cubism. In this style, everything, whether in form, color, or structure, was subjected to rigorous dissection and then reorganized according to geometric principles into proportional arrangements. From these analytical Cubist compositions, we can see how artists employed pure intellect to handle the spatial aspects of their work and how they used geometric plotting to ensure that every aspect of an object could be fully represented simultaneously on the same canvas. Therefore, what we see in Cubist paintings is a kaleidoscopic portrayal of multifaceted forms.

After 1912, Cubist painting progressed to a third phase known as Synthetic Cubism. During this period, artists had greater freedom to choose any object they deemed suitable for their compositions and, using decorative forms and logical principles, synthesized them into compositions on a single canvas.

Cubist painting, due to its complexity and emphasis on the coordination of form, color, and quantity, akin to diagrams in scientific theory, gradually led painters to feel constrained by its formalism, hindering further development. As a result, after 1916, the Cubist style of painting, which depicted objects in a theoretical and principled manner on the canvas, began to decline.

Picasso's artistic style has always been known for its versatility. Since he moved from Spain to reside in Paris, he was deeply influenced by Impressionist painters, and later enthusiastically studied the paintings of Cézanne. In 1910, when he held an exhibition, he mainly depicted the plight of the common people, which marked his "Blue Period". After 1905, he switched to using a crimson color palette for his paintings, known as the "Rose Period". By 1906, he pioneered the art of Cubism. Thanks to the enthusiastic advocacy of the critic Apollinaire, Picasso gained worldwide attention. Over the next few decades, he alternated between Neoclassicism and new Naturalism, his versatile style evolving with the times. Later, he also made efforts in Surrealist art. He was constantly exploring and creating. Overall, he always made efforts to experiment with abstraction to express his personal, innovative imagery.

Braque, who was originally a Fauvist painter, began to abandon his previous techniques after befriending Picasso in 1908, and under the influence of Cézanne, he began to freely distort images. His analytical Cubist paintings began around 1910. Soon after, he started incorporating text into his compositions, entering the Synthetic Cubist phase. This artistic transition was natural for him, as his father was an interior decorator, and to meet the decorative purposes of cardboard murals, he incorporated these artistically created abstract elements, which added to their aesthetic appeal.

After returning from military service in World War I, his painting style shifted towards a calm and serene decorative sense. He favored using white, black, sage green, and ochre as basic colors, organizing pure and soft pictorial areas, while still retaining some characteristics of Cubist composition. However, his unique style, characterized by harmony, strength, and a lyrical atmosphere, was beyond comparison.

Fauvism

Since Fauvism decisively raised the banner of rebellion against academic art, emphasizing art as the expression of "self-spirit," modern painting began an astonishing development. Almost simultaneously, France saw the emergence of Cubism, Italy witnessed the Futurist movement, and Germany gave rise to an art revolutionary movement known as "Expressionism." This is a broad genre, with a wide range of influences and complexities, not easily defined in a few words. We can only understand its significance and grasp its essence by examining the objectives of this movement and the styles of its major artists.

Expressionist art, although a reflection of Fauvism, differs significantly in its focus. While Fauvist paintings are generally sweet and intoxicating, Expressionist works are serious and intense. Moreover, the attitudes of the painters themselves are quite distinct. Fauvist painters use pure aesthetics, employing lines and colors to create simple representations of inner emotions, aiming solely for a sense of pure painting. Expressionist painters, on the other hand, seek to penetrate objects or forms, subjectively analyzing and emphasizing the inner spirit. They pursue philosophical introspection of the painter's self-spirit manifested in the painting. In summary, Expressionism is not premised on how painting is represented but on how the content of the spirit is expressed. The spirit of Expressionist art is based on the creative evolution theory of the French philosopher Bergson and the subjective phenomenology of the German philosopher Schuppe, with its subjective affirmation derived from Nietzsche's doctrine of the self-realization of the will to power. Expressionist painters occasionally use light to illustrate narrative relationships when seeking to create intense emotions or specific moods. Thus, Expressionism is subjective, dynamic, exploratory, and represents a style of art derived from the painter's thought processes expressed on the canvas.

Now, based on the styles of painters from this movement, Expressionism can be roughly divided into three basic styles:

(1) The Bridge group, consisting of outstanding painters such as Kirchner (1880-1938), who used woodcut techniques to depict scenes. Nolde (1867-1956) favored strong colors and primitive forms to compose his paintings. Pechstein was skilled in using smooth and soft brushstrokes with decorative colors. Rottluff (1884) was influenced by Cubism and leaned towards expressive depictions. Mueller (1874-1930) often portrayed the lives of gypsies in his paintings. These artists were heavily influenced by Van Gogh and Gauguin, drawing inspiration from African tribal sculptures and Fauvist art. They employed distorted forms to convey emotional essence while still presenting representation and form on the canvas.

(2) The Blue Rider group, featuring notable painters like Marc (1880-1916), who employed three-dimensional distortions and vivid colors with smooth and flowing brushstrokes to depict imaginary animals. Klee (1879-1940) excelled in using lines with a sense of volume and texture to portray the innocent world with childlike purity. Jawlensky (1864-1941) used abstract compositions with symbolic shining colors to create rhythmic and dynamic flat paintings. Kandinsky organized abstract compositions with color, line, and form.

This style of painting belongs to the abstract category, combining the simplicity of Gauguin's Synthetism, Delaunay's color theory, and primitive folk art. It expresses pure subjective emotions through color tones, creating rhythmic compositions in pursuit of the highest and purest expression of self-spirit.

(3) The painters of New Objectivity, including Dix (1891), who was adept at depicting the horror and cruelty of war. Schrimpf (1889-1942) portrayed simplicity and static power in his paintings, while Grosz (1893) criticized human ugly desires.

This style of painting is primarily figurative, bringing Expressionist subjective concepts into the realm of sensory reality. Contrary to the passionate styles of the Bridge and Blue Rider groups, this style focuses on rational representation, portraying a calm and cold depiction of reality.

In addition to the three Expressionist painting groups mentioned above, there are many independent or symbolic Expressionist painters. For example, Kokoschka (1886), an Australian painter with a passion similar to Van Gogh's, used bold lines to create heavy representations on the canvas. He favored deep tones and rough, bold brushstrokes, depicting his vision of earthly hell reminiscent of Gothic stained glass windows. Rouault (1871-1958), a French painter with religious ideals, was skilled at portraying gloomy emotions, expressing the impulses and sense of horror in the dark world of humanity. Munch (1863-1944), a Norwegian painter, was known for depicting hungry children and aging trees with a sense of melancholy. Soutine (1894-1943), a Russian painter, also excelled in portraying hunger-stricken children and aged trees.

Furthermore, there are various styles within Expressionism, such as Surrealist Expressionism, Abstract Expressionism, and Realist Expressionism, which together constitute the vast stream of 20th-century art.

Since the rise of modern science, mechanical progress has been incessant. Especially between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, remarkable achievements were made in mechanical advancements. Previously handmade items could now be mass-produced using machines. Transportation, once reliant on walking or animal-drawn carts, now included airplanes and automobiles. Human beings used scientific power daily to conquer time and space, leading to an era dominated by machinery and speed. As a result, not only did societal organizations change and economies evolve, but various unsolvable problems emerged, affecting people's material lives and creating a sense of unease.

Sensitive poets and painters of the time were particularly concerned with the issue of speed resulting from the utilization of machinery. In 1909, Italian poet Marinetti (1878) published the Futurist Manifesto, and the following year, five young Italian painters - Boccioni (1882), Carra (1881), Russolo (1885), Balla (1871), and Severini (1883) - responded to Marinetti's call and pioneered a new form of expression known as Futurism. They aimed to portray the ever-changing future life influenced by science in all forms of art. Therefore, their painting subjects often depicted moving vehicles such as cars and trains or dynamic activities like dancing. Futurist painters also employed the analytical and synthetic methods of Cubism, first destroying all forms before enhancing or conveying the sensations of rapid movement through a unified axis of light and color. The difference between Futurism and Cubism lies in the former's focus on the temporal aspect of representation, while the latter focuses on spatial solutions. Futurist painters believed that static art was insufficient to reflect the spirit of the times, and thus enthusiastically praised modern material civilization and future innovations, directly depicting phenomena of agitation, violence, and rapid emotions on their canvases.

Around 1918, another group of painters emerged, led by Ozenfant (1886) and Jeanneret (1887), advocating for Purism. They felt that Cubism had progressed to a dead end, becoming a decadent decorative formula. To remedy this, they believed it was necessary to reduce the emphasis on technical skill in art forms, abolish all decorative fantasy elements, and retain only the physical basis on which Cubism was founded. This resulted in a clear, mechanical form symbolizing the era in which they lived. These Purist painters equally emphasized techniques such as "overlapping of images" and "simultaneous representation of different perspectives of objects." Pure art, devoid of the painter's sensitivity and purely a product of the mind, was therefore challenging to achieve desired effects on the canvas. However, it found great success in architecture and had a significant impact on industrial design in later years. Jeanneret, also known as Le Corbusier, became a world-renowned architect. Pure art in modern architecture has been widely used.

Although Futurism and Purism both originated from Cubism and were extreme art movements, they differed significantly in their viewpoints. Futurism inclined towards the movement's extreme speed, while Purism leaned towards stable tranquility. Futurism eagerly embraced the future, while Purism contemplated the past. Therefore, you can clearly distinguish between the two on the canvas: Futurism depicts the mechanical power of rapid movement, while Purism celebrates the stability and precision of machinery in a static state. In summary, Purist painters used geometrically simple forms in their paintings, resembling architectural design more than extreme abstract painting. They did not seek to excite the viewer's spirit with emotions but instead aimed to provide a sense of calm and pleasure. They did not govern the canvas with emotions or feelings but rather used intellectual theories to control their paintings.

After Ozenfant and Jeanneret advocated for Purism, another influential painter, Leger (1881-1955), was greatly influenced. When he enlisted in the engineering corps in 1914, the impression left by armored machinery and new weapons was profound. Utilizing geometric principles, he composed "symmetrical forms" based on Cezanne's theory, pushing Purist art further, and establishing a "Mechanistic" artistic style. Later, he further expanded the sense of space, infusing it with decorative flavors. Changing the form of objects using mechanical forms, he depicted modern material civilization and earthly significance on the canvas.

In conclusion, Purist art found completion in architecture through Jeanneret, while in painting, it was notably realized through Leger's Mechanistic art.

Orphism and Suprematism

Orphism, advocated by French painter Delaunay (1885-1941) in 1922, emerged as a movement of artistic innovation during the flourishing period of Analytical Cubism. These painters felt that Cubist art lacked color expression and was too constrained by the forms of objects. Thus, based on the analytical approach of Cubism, they aimed to liberate painting from the constraints of formal structure. Orphism thoroughly observed and studied the brightness, purity, and deviation of colors in terms of wavelength or frequency. By contrasting colors and creating variations in color gradation, they blended forms on the canvas with a musical requirement, resulting in a strong expression reminiscent of a grand symphony of sound, thus forming a major characteristic of modern pure abstract art. Orphism's use of color greatly influenced the Blue Rider group of Expressionist painters.

Suprematism, like Orphism, originated from Analytical Cubism. Its goal was to isolate material and use only lines and colors as painting techniques to create abstract compositions of pure geometric forms, aiming to express the highest spiritual meaning. It emphasized the weight of geometric forms and the direction of lines on the canvas, seeking the dynamic balance and beauty of the composition through their interrelation. The pioneering painter of this movement was Malevich (1878-1935) from Russia. He employed simple geometric shapes such as diamonds, circles, squares, or rectangles, along with discontinuous straight or curved lines to create intricate abstract compositions. In 1913, he held his first solo exhibition in Moscow, showcasing this style, and established a new artistic style of Suprematism. By 1915, artists like Arp (1887) in Zurich and Magnelli (1888) in Florence were also influenced by Malevich, beginning to use simple geometric forms to create abstract paintings.

In summary, both Orphism and Suprematism originated from dissatisfaction with Analytical Cubism and emerged as forms of pure abstract art devoid of representation. Delaunay, the founder of Orphism, applied theories of color science as the basis of his painting, believing that colors, when contrasted, could convey a sense of dynamism and musical rhythm on the canvas. The critic Apollinaire associated Delaunay's intention with the mythical Greek musician Orpheus, hence naming the movement Orphism. Malevich, the founder of Suprematism, pursued the creation of images of movement or stasis using purer lines, aiming to encompass all phenomena of the universe within a few geometric forms and portray pure balance and beauty on the canvas, constituting a style of pure abstract art. Both movements pursued purity of beauty and emphasized the sense of dynamism on the canvas. The difference lies in Orphism's emphasis on color, utilizing color contrast to express beauty akin to music, while Suprematism focused on form, combining volumetric geometric forms with dynamic lines to express movement and balance beauty on the canvas. Although these movements did not have a lasting impact, they provided great inspiration to later generations of painters.

Dadaism and Surrealism

Dadaism emerged in 1916 as a vehement artistic movement initiated by many cynical painters in Zurich, Switzerland. Among the most active artists were Picabia (1878) and Duchamp (1887). They used a destructive nihilism to destroy all old traditions, fervently opposing the secular world, and indulging in irrational methods of expression, directly exposing all the ugliness and irrational events in society on their canvases, revealing their disgust for the cruel war. Therefore, what we perceive from the art of Dadaism is not satire or mental abuse. However, this destructive art only appeared as a flash in the pan and completely disappeared by 1921. As one writer described it, "Dadaism ended with a smile!" Indeed, after 1921, the entire European society showed signs of prosperity, and people's lives had optimistic prospects, no longer filled with wartime fear and despair. Therefore, Dadaist painters could no longer find enough material for their harsh criticism, and their ideas had become outdated due to the evolution of trends! So, when will it end with a smile?

Subsequently, the Dadaist painters abandoned all concerns for the outside world and returned to a clear world of artistic creation purely for themselves. They eliminated the destructiveness and negativism of the Dadaism era and leaned towards psychological experimentalism, vigorously analyzing human subconscious activities. From the works of these painters, we can distinguish two different styles: one represented by Dali (1904) and Tanguy (1900-1955), known for their symbolic styles. They created a dream-like atmosphere on the canvas with deep perspectives, suggesting the passage of time, and used pure colors to express strong fantasy. Tanguy was even a cosmologist, using rich imagination and subconscious poetry to freely explore the secrets of the universe. The other style represented by Masson (1896) and Arp (1888), entirely comprised a playful combination of forms on the canvas, inclined towards depicting bizarre subjects.

Surrealist art relies on the painter's thoughts to randomly combine images, perceptions, or fantasies on the same canvas, creating a dreamlike or symbolic representation. This style of painting is a poem that is difficult to understand conceptually, a mysterious world of imagination. The ultimate ideal pursued by painters is to integrate poetry and painting into one. They once declared: "@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@." From this, we know that the surrealistic painting of the non-reality within reality is conceptually derived from Freud's theory of the subconscious.

Kandinsky's Absolute Art

Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944) holds a unique and significant position in the modern history of art and the development of abstract art as a whole. Initially aspiring to become a musician, he ended up obtaining a law degree from Moscow University in 1893 and pursued a career in law. However, he found no satisfaction in his work and decided to resign from his position in 1895 to focus on painting. He traveled extensively, studying various painting styles and movements, and was particularly influenced by the forms of Picasso and the colors of Matisse, considering them as two great landmarks in the journey of artists. Initially influenced by the Fauvist movement, upon returning to Munich in 1908, he began exploring abstract expressionism and exhibited his work at the Blue Rider exhibitions.

In 1910, he created his first abstract paintings devoid of recognizable forms. Over the next thirty years, he remained steadfast in his exploration of the "essence" of the universe, based on the principles of natural law he admired from Roman jurisprudence, viewing the world through the lens of his inner emotions and objective forms. He believed this "essence" emanated from nature, possessing universality and necessity, thus forming the absolute spirit of pure painting. In his works "Concerning the Spiritual in Art" and "On the Spiritual in Art," he meticulously outlined his experiments and studies, establishing a logical and systematic art theory for abstract painting.

Many people believe he wrote about painting only to justify his own work, and his abstract arguments can seem mysterious and perplexing. However, once you understand that modern painting is about the artist's self-expression, it becomes easier to comprehend his art and philosophy. Due to his love for music and his initial desire to become a musician, he sought to create a symphony of colors in his paintings. He extensively studied color psychology, the horizontal movement of colors, and the inward-outward movement of colors. He aimed to evoke the same aesthetic pleasure in painting as music does through color.

His forms, devoid of any recognizable natural objects, consisted solely of abstract compositions of dots, lines, shapes, and volumes, reflecting his inner impressions. His background in law instilled in him a certain legalistic temperament, which he naturally applied to art, drawing inspiration from Stoic philosophy and natural law principles.

His artistic style was a reflection of his personality, and he dedicated his entire life to the study of art. He adopted an uncompromising attitude towards life and art, remaining faithful to his original creative spirit and embracing criticism with steadfastness. His meticulous treatises on painting have instilled infinite confidence and courage in artists, and many forms of abstract art have emerged or been inspired by his influence. Critics praise him as the "Giotto of the 20th century," and rightfully so. His paintings, which demonstrate a high degree of intellect, have become the hallmark of abstract art in the 20th century, and he has expanded the horizons of the new generation of art.

Mondrian's Neoplasticism Art

I'm sure you're all familiar with Mondrian's Neoplastic art, as it has been widely utilized in architecture, furniture design, interior decoration, and advertising. Whether it's the newly constructed buildings with walls painted in primary colors like red, blue, and yellow, or the storefronts of businesses and restaurants decorated with colorful glass or cardboard cubes, all of these are practical results of Neoplastic art. However, did you know that this is all due to Mondrian's influence?

This modern Dutch painter, alongside Kandinsky, achieved greatness in the realm of abstract art. His abstract art originated from Cubism. After 1914, he began transforming natural objects into highly rhythmic abstract compositions using simple addition and subtraction symbols. This laid the groundwork for Neoplastic art. By 1917, he co-founded the art magazine "De Stijl" with a group of painters, sculptors, architects, and philosophers, vigorously advocating for Neoplastic art. From this time onwards, he became more devoted to exploring new sensations in painting, thus establishing a unique style.

The essence of Neoplastic art is to attempt to represent the ever-changing phenomena of nature through clearly defined forms. To reproduce the characteristics of cosmic organization, art should be as precise as mathematics. Objects exist outside the human mind, and the myriad changes in nature follow an unchanging law, which is the law of form. Therefore, this art movement opposes subjective expressionism and seeks a universal, unchanging form of precision and objectivity. From this standpoint, Mondrian and Kandinsky's art theories are clearly opposite extremes. Mondrian's abstract concepts were influenced by a new theory established by his friend Schoenmackes. We can discern Mondrian's belief in the philosophical concept of "monistic absolutism" from his paintings. Neoplastic art is limited to combinations of purely geometric forms, with horizontal and vertical lines intersecting at right angles. Rectangles are the basic form on the canvas, with primary colors of red, blue, and yellow, along with black, white, and gray. Through appropriate arrangements based on the intensity of color and quantity, the aim is to achieve aesthetic harmony and balance. In pursuit of harmony, precision, and balance on the canvas, Mondrian remained steadfast in his dedication for decades. In the end, he achieved a highly perfect harmony, earning him a place alongside Rembrandt and Van Gogh as one of the three greats of Dutch art, and alongside Kandinsky as one of the two founding fathers of abstract painting.

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After observing the development of art over the past century, one cannot help but be amazed by its divergent and ever-changing nature. Particularly since the time of Cézanne, countless art movements have emerged, each with its own principles. Just considering the abstract art of the past half-century, there have been over twenty different systems and approaches. While it's impossible to list them all, we can summarize a few influential movements.

Although art movements boast countless "-isms" and exhibit a dazzling array of styles, from this diverse array of art movements, we can discern that they all follow either structural forms or paths of thought, whether subjective or objective. Thus, if we view art from its fundamental nature, it becomes easier to analyze. Furthermore, from the evolution of various art movements, we can observe that the establishment of each new artistic movement not only involves a direct departure from old traditions but also involves preserving some useful elements from those traditions. After discarding the useless elements and merging with new and positive elements, the development process can be considered complete, and a new process can begin.

The famous French philosopher Bergson once said, "The existence of things is due to their change. Because of change, they can mature. The reason for maturity is the result of continuous self-creation!" I think these words aptly illustrate the evolution of art!